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Note: The remainder of this page has been intentionally left blank because that is the way a manuscript's title page should appear when sent to us, either as an initial submission or as a final revision.

I describe here the format/style requirements for manuscripts for publication in the Journal of Freshwater Ecology. The initially submitted manuscript must conform to these guidelines with only one exception. The entire text of the initial submission, including the "Abstract" and the "Literature Cited," must be double-spaced to allow for direct comment by referees and the editor. Most of these details are described in the published "Instructions to Authors," and they are also clearly demonstrated in recently published papers. Still, some authors continue to "do it their way," which results in an undue expenditure of editorial time as well as the time and expense of unnecessary mailings. Hopefully, this little "example" will serve to remedy this problem. Submissions that do not conform will not be considered or reviewed. Final revisions that do not conform will not be published.

Initial submissions are to be double-spaced; they should also be submitted as triplicate hard copies via the postal service or courier. We do not accept electronic submissions. The final draft of an accepted manuscript must be single-spaced. The various spacings within this example may or may not appear as they should in a final draft manuscript because different Web browsers handle spacing and indentations differently. For example, every new paragreaph, including that of the "Abstract," should be initially indented. When collected references in the "Literature Cited" occupy more than one line, those subsquent lines for each reference are to be indented. Be aware that some Web browsers will not display this indentation properly, and see a recent issue of the Journal for details of the correct format.

Before I continue, I will comment briefly on the title page and the credits that appear there. Generally, the name of the institution that appears below an author's name is the institution with which the author was affiliated when the work was done. It is appropriate to give credit to that institution, since at the minimum it did provide office space for the author, and in most cases it provided other forms of support for the research. Having recognized that institution on the title page, it is redundant to then give additional recognition to that institution in the acknowledgments section of the paper, unless that acknowledgment might be for some very specific grant or program, which would be appropriate to recognize there.

Since scientists do relocate from time to time, it may be necessary to identify a particular author's new affiliation and address. That should be done with a footnote to that author's name, and the footnote should appear at the bottom of the first page of text (i.e., the abstract page) in the format of: "Present address: _________________."

Unless otherwise specified, it can be assumed that the first author listed under the title is the author for correspondence; therefore, no further note of this fact need or should be made. If, however, the author for correspondence is one other than the first listed, an appropriate footnote should be used to so indicate. It should take the form, "Corresponding author; E-mail: ___________" (if desired) and/or present address (if other than that given below the title).

Since one author is usually considered (or designated) as the "corresponding author," it is usually not appropriate to add E-mail addresses for other authors. When presenting an E-mail address, do not underscore it. Note that we use the notation "E-mail" rather than "e-mail."

Domestic (USA) authors should not use postal abbreviations for the names of states, since these will be unfamiliar to many foreign readers. (Similarly, if specific state locations are used in the narrative of the paper, those state names should be spelled out in their entireties.) Otherwise, mailing addresses should be complete enough to ensure that any mail sent to those addresses will make the trip. If zip codes (USA) or other postal code numbers (non-USA) are part of the address, they should be included.

While this may not be a typical introduction, giving background orientation and supporting literature references, I have titled it "Introduction" simply to demonstrate that it is one of the essential and titled parts of a manuscript, except in the case of a "Note." More about "Notes" later.

The following titled headings should appear in all manuscripts (except "Notes"), and they should all be centered and in capital letters: ABSTRACT, INTRODUCTION, METHODS AND MATERIALS, RESULTS, DISCUSSION, and LITERATURE CITED. In instances were the results section is unusually brief, this section should be combined with the discussion as RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. There may be other instances where it would also be appropriate to have a combined "Results and Discussion" section. If acknowledgments are to be given or thanks extended, that should happen in the section headed: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Later you will see that I have made some very specific comments regarding acknowledgments.

You may have observed that I have used personal pronouns in presenting this narration. That usage is perfectly acceptable and even much preferred in today's world. We have long passed that era in science when authors took great pains to avoid use of personal pronouns. Apparently, many folks in the past felt that a scientist needed to remove him/herself from the narrative in order to remain or appear objective, and the use of personal pronouns was contrary to objectivity. This notion is quite contrived and without historic merit. Many of the formal communications of some of our greatest scientific researchers, including people like Darwin (1902), in fact used personal pronouns. Like other narration, such usage can be overdone, but if it can lead to an economy of words or clarity of the message, the use of personal pronouns is quite desirable.

The abstract

Since the abstract will be reproduced by abstracting services, it should contain enough descriptive information about the study so that it can stand alone and be understood. However, the abstract should be a succinct summary of the results. Introductory background information and methodology should be kept to a minimum. The abstract should contain some of the highlights and salient data, but it should not be replete with data or burdened with all sorts of statistical accounts. Literature should not be cited in the abstract. Acronyms should only be introduced in the abstract if those acronyms are later used in the abstract narrative. If the work deals with one or two particular species, the unabbreviated scientific names of those species should appear in the abstract (even if they also appear in the title of the paper). The abstract should never contain statements like, "The implications of the results are discussed." Such statements contain absolutely no meaningful information. Furthermore, it can be assumed that results will be discussed in all scientific research reports.

About footnotes

When footnotes are used to reference one of the authors, the institutional affiliation, or the title, those footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the first page of text (i.e., the page that starts with the abstract of the paper). Footnotes are always indicated with alphabetic superscripts. When any footnote occupies more than one line of text, subsequent lines of text start exactly below one another at the left side. Whenever used, superscripts must be of sufficient type size so that they are able to survive photoreduction and still be readable. The text of any footnote must be of the same type size as the rest of the manuscript narration.

Type font and sizes

Only one font style should be used throughout the manuscript, and it should also be the font used for all tables and figures. You may choose from the following fonts and point sizes: Times or Times New Roman (the preferred styles), both in 13-point size; Bookman, 12-point; new Century Schoolbook, 12-point; or New York, 11-point. The size of the type used is very critical and so must be as specified here. Resist the urge to drop to a smaller type size to try to squeeze more words into a finite space. If you do it without detection, the result will be a published paper that is "outstanding," but not for its content. It will stand out because of its non-conforming physical appearance (and difficulty to read). If you do it and we detect it, the manuscript will not be reviewed or published.

Boldface type style should be avoided throughout the manuscript, with the only possible exception being within large figures that are likely to be reduced for press. In that case, boldface type might be appropriate. Some people feel compelled to use boldface type for narrative headings and for emphasis within tables. Do not do that.

There are only three instances in which italicized type style should be used. they are: 1) for scientific names, 2) for foreign (non-English) words that are not in accepted common usage in the English language, and 3) for subheadings within the narrative. Note that if a scientific name has a subspecies or variety, the indication of that (e.g., "var.") is not italicized. Examples of 2) are in situ and in vivo. The expression "et al." should not be italicized. Note also that the "al." is an abbreviation, but the "et" is not. This expression is Latin (et alii), meaning "and others." Italicized subheadings within the narrative should be used sparingly and only for lengthy papers or complicated methods sections; when used, such subheadings start at the left margin and are immediately followed by narrative on the next line of text (i.e., with no intervening double spacing). If your equipment does not allow italicization, in lieu of italics, the individual words can and should be underscored, but be sure to only underscore the words and not the spaces between those words.

How we prepare manuscripts for press

Once a manuscript has been accepted and edited, the corresponding author is asked to prepare a single-spaced, camera-ready draft for press. That final draft should be technically and scientifically accurate, grammatically correct, and in conformance with the format proscribed by the Journal. This is critically important because we then scan the copy directly and set it up for the printing process. There are no final proofs to be sent back to authors, for we have already received from those authors their perfect papers. Using this procedure enables us to reduce the total turn-around time for manuscripts and get them into the hands of readers as quickly as possible. Of course, the burden of having a "perfect" paper then lies with the authors and their supplying us with properly formatted and accurate work.

After we scan a manuscript page, that image is reduced by 25% and subsequently applied to a page in the Journal. This is why we insist that manuscripts be typed with a total text width of exactly 16.5 cm. Upon standard reduction of 25%, the text fits nicely into a Journal page and is very readable. Tables that are constructed in the 16.5 cm (width) format will be inserted directly into the text and will also be reduced by 25%. Larger tables may be reduced to a greater extent and/or oriented horizontally on a Journal page. Figures will be appropriately reduced and inserted into the manuscript above their reduced legends. (See other comments on figures and tables later.)

Personal communications

Occasionally, an author may want to refer to the unpublished work or opinion of an authority, which is certainly acceptable. However, when this is done, that authority must be identified by name and affiliation. A convenient way to do this is with a parenthetic notation within the text (e.g., "pers. comm., C. Dusk"), and then give the person's affiliation as a footnote.

About the right margin

I have a personal disdain for the use of right margin justification, even though this technique has been used in the printing business for well over 100 years. Thus, right margin justification is not allowed, and I have good rationale for this decision. If done properly and with careful proof-reading, right margin justification does present a nicely ordered appearance in a text. However, with the plethora of computerized word processors and type fonts that are used today, the right margin justification mode does not generate consistent results. Spacing between and within words often becomes extremely strange and irregular, which makes for difficult, if not annoying, reading. Additionally, without very careful proof-reading and subsequent correction, right margin justification often leads to strange fragmentation of scientific words, especially abbreviated units.

Figures and tables

All figures and tables should be collected at the very end of the manuscript; they are not to be placed within the text. When constructing figures, keep in mind that those figures must fit into a finished Journal page. Construct them in proportions that will enable such fits when those figures are reduced for press but be aware that when reduced, they must still be readable. This is the one instance where you may use a larger type font or even boldface font (i.e., labeling within the figure).

Figure legends, in the proscribed style, should be typed on a separate page (i.e., a page separate from the actual figures). Each figure should be identified by its number in pencil on its reverse side. The total width of the figure title, including the word "Figure," should be 16.5 cm, and that title should be precisely indented at the left side. Do not abbreviate the word "Figure" in the title.

Unless given specific instructions by the editor, the type size used within tables can be no smaller than the sizes specified above for the text. Authors should make efforts to construct tables exactly in the 16.5 cm (width) format. No table or table title may be less than 16.5 cm in width. Tables should be constructed with reasonable internal spacing of columns and rows. Only horizontal lines are permitted in tables, and they should be used sparingly. Columns of numbers should be aligned carefully below their headings. Occasionally, an author may want to present a large table (i.e., one with many columns of information). When that is done, it is perfectly acceptable to type the table in the "landscape" orientation to accommodate the added columns. In such cases, however, the type size must be increased, for that table will subsequently be undergoing greater reduction in preparation for press. Lengthy tables can be continued on more than one page. Footnotes should be used sparingly, if at all, in tables; if they are used, they should appear immediately below the terminal horizontal line at the bottom. Authors should attempt to include explanatory information, including statistical confidence notes, within the title of the table. Do not reiterate the methodology in the table title or footnotes.

Acronyms

The use of acronyms, like the use of abbreviated scientific names, can result in less wordy sentences and economy of space. However, acronyms need to be defined when first introduced, and this is true even for what may appear to be very commonly used acronyms. Furthermore, if an acronym is introduced and used in the abstract, it still needs to be again introduced/defined in the body of the text.

Citing references

We use the author-year method for citing literature within the body of the text. When strings of authors are cited parenthetically, they are separated from one another by commas; the semicolon is not used. Consider this example: (Lott 1991, Rinella and Feminella 2005, Torgersen et al. 1999).

Using scientific names

Whenever a scientific name is used for the first time, the complete name must be presented (i.e., the generic name plus the specific epithet). Thereafter, the generic name should be abbreviated (in almost all cases, with its first letter in the capitalized form), and this is followed by the specific epithet. If a species is uncertain or unknown, then it should be identified using the full generic name followed by "sp." If the reference is to more than one species within the genus, then the generic name is followed by "spp." In either case, neither the "sp." nor the "spp." is italicized.

Comments on collected literature

Note carefully the placement of commas and periods in the various types of literature at the end of this paper. References are listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If more than one author is involved, all names are shown and separated from one another by commas. In such a string of names, the initials follow only the first author's name; for all others, the initials precede the name.

If you choose to abbreviate the names of journals, do so for all of the journals, and be sure to use the standard and accepted abbreviations. Do not italicize journal names or the names of books. There is no acceptable abbreviation for "Freshwater."

Miscellaneous comments

When used in narration, whole numbers less than 10 should be spelled out in words, unless those numbers are accompanied by abbreviated units or unless those numbers designate a specific protocol (e.g., Site 1, Step 3).

The accepted abbreviation for liter is L; the abbreviation for milliliter is mL. Metric units should always be used. For example, stream discharge would be expressed as m³/s not cfs. Distances, including locations on rivers, would be expressed in kilometers not miles. The archaic units ppb, ppm, and ppt are not acceptable.

In instances, there are alternative spellings of some words, with the alternatives being British usage versus American usage. Since the Journal is published in the USA, the appropriate choice would always be the "Americanized" alternative (e.g., colonization versus colonisation, behavior versus behaviour).

None of us is immune from grammatical mistakes, but we can all try to be more aware of typical errors and not commit them. In the preceding sentence, "none" is a singular noun. The verb used therefore was "is." A very common singular/plural mistake is with the word "total," which can function as a noun or as an adjective. "A total of 32 taxa were identified" is incorrect, for total is a singular noun in this usage. The correct construction would be, "A total of 32 taxa was identified." Sometimes the correct construction just does not feel "right." If so and if that bothers you, then try a different approach (e.g., "All total, 32 taxa were identified." "Thirty-two taxa were identified.").

If you are characterizing or describing a species, your comments will be referring to a singular entity, the species. For example, "Northern pike (Esox lucius) was studied over a three-year period. E. lucius is most often the top carnivore in systems where it occurs." (Note the use of the singular verbs "was" and "is" and the pronoun "it.")

"Fish" is the plural of fish when reference is to multiples of the same species. If two or more species are involved, the plural is "fishes."

When used as a noun, "plankton" is a singular entity; it takes a singular verb when used as the subject of a sentence. The same is true for phytoplankton, zooplankton, and periphyton. A proper pronoun referring to any of these individually would be "it," not "they."

About "Notes"

Finally, I have some comments on the format that should be used for a manuscript that is intended to be published as a "Note." Such papers have only one required major heading &endash; the ABSTRACT. They may also have "Acknowledgments" and "Literature Cited" headings. To visually separate the abstract from the rest of the manuscript, that abstract should be indented an additional 1 cm at both left and right margins. Authors should endeavor to construct abstracts in no more that one paragraph, whether that abstract be for a "Note" or a regular paper.

The abstract is separated from the rest of the paper only by a double space; there is no titled "Introduction." Just as with full papers, the entire text should be single-spaced. Double spacing is used only between major sections and subsections. The body of the text for the remainder of the "Note" will be constructed in the same manner as in a "full" paper. The type size, font, and all other technical constructs are the same, except for the lack of all but the two (or three) major headings. The width of the text in the body of the "Note" is 16.5 cm.

In the case of a "Note,"if any footnotes are used that refer to the authors or their affiliations, those footnotes should appears at the bottom of the last page of text, as shown here. If a footnote references the title of the "Note," it should appear at the bottom of the first page of text.

Very often in this section an author will recognize financial and other support for the work, possibly by listing a granting agency or a project number. This is appropriate.

This is also the place to thank support personnel who were important in the activity. Realize that these acknowledgments should, like the rest of the paper, be concise and to the point. If several people are being thanked, it can effectively be accomplished with a series of names within a single sentence. Avoid verbiage like, "We would like to thank Aaron Bissel for his unending and gracious labor, both in the field and the laboratory, without which this project would not have been completed." First of all, if you would like to thank him, just do it! And, do it concisely and nicely. "We thank Aaron Bissel for his assistance throughout this project."

Darwin, C. 1902. The origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservationof favored races in the struggle for life, sixth edition. D. Appleton and Co., New York. 338 pp.

Lott, J.P. 1991. Food habits of yellow perch in eastern South Dakota glacial lakes. M.S. Thesis. South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota.

Rinella, D.J. and J.W. Feminella. 2005. Comparison of benthic macroinvertebrates colonizing sand, wood, and artificial substrates in a low-gradient stream. J. Freshwater Ecol. 20:209-220.

Rosenberg, D.M. and V.H. Resh. 1982. The use of artificial substrates in the study of freshwater benthic macroinvertebrates. Pages 175-235 In: Cairns, J. (ed.), Artificial substrates. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.

SAS. 1996. SAS procedures guides for personal computers. Version 8.0. SAS Institute, Cary, North Carolina.

Shen, Y.F. 1983. Protozoa of the Tibetan Plateau. Pages 48-100 In: Jiang, X.Z., Y.F. Shen, and X.J. Gong (eds.), Aquatic invertebrates of the Tibetan Plateau. Science Press, Beijing.

Torgersen, C.E., D.M. Price, H.W. Li, and B.A. McIntosh. 1999. Multiscale thermal refugia and stream habitat associations of chinook salmon in northeastern Oregon. Ecol. Appl. 9:301-319.

White, G.C., D.R. Anderson, K.P. Burnham, and D.L. Otis. 1982. Capture-recapture and removal methods for sampling closed populations. Los Alamos National Laboratory LA-8787-NERP. 235 pp.

Note: When a particular listing of a reference occupies more than one line of type, subsequent lines for that reference are to be indented (even if it does not appear that way above because of Web browser limitations). All of the collected literature is to be completely single-spaced in the final version of the manuscript, even between the references.

Please remember... The initially-submitted manuscript is to be totally double-spaced.